Exactly 250 years ago, on July 4, 1776, as the Second Continental Congress adopted the U.S. Declaration of Independence, Ablai Khan was navigating a treacherous political landscape to preserve the sovereignty of the Kazakh Khanate between the rival Russian and Qing empires.
To mark the 250th anniversary of American independence, Qalam revisited the journals of the first American travelers who ventured into the Great Steppe, leaving behind vivid — if sometimes biased — accounts of a world on the brink of profound transformation. These early narratives, ranging from the observations of commercial agents to the reports...